Ondřej Hubka
Masters Candidate
University of West Bohemia, Pilsen, Czech Republic
Suggested Citation:
Hubka, O. (2024). The circuit of culture and American collegiate athletics from a European perspective. Utah Journal of Communication, 2(1), 13-19. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.11165352
Abstract
This ethnographic study, conducted from a European exchange student’s perspective, delves into the distinct cultural fabric of U.S. college sports. The research, based on interactions with 20 international students and athletes, uncovers a rich tapestry of customs and community bonds integral to American collegiate sports. These activities, deeply embedded in the U.S. system of higher education, go beyond mere competition, playing a crucial role in personal development, community building, and economic endeavors. Central to the study is the application of Stuart Hall’s Circuit of Culture framework, dissecting how collegiate sports in America are represented, consumed, produced, regulated, and identified. The research sheds light on the symbolic representation of team spirit, the communal experience of sports consumption, and the NCAA’s pivotal role in sports production and regulation. It also addresses the social norms shaping fan behavior, contributing to the distinctive experience of collegiate sports events. A significant finding of the study is the profound sense of identification with collegiate sports teams among students, staff, alumni, and fans. This identification is a key part of individual and community identity, with shared experiences fostering a strong sense of belonging and pride. This aspect is particularly resonant for international students, who find a sense of connection and community in this unique cultural landscape. This ethnography presents an insightful view into the integral role of sports in shaping the educational and cultural landscape of American universities, offering a deeper understanding of their significance from a global perspective.
Keywords: Ethnography, Amateur athletics, NCAA, Sports communication, Athletic administration
In the United States, collegiate athletics are vastly different in comparison to the European amateur sport structure. Woven into the US system of higher education, collegiate athletics are said to serve as the “front door” of institutions of high education (Benedict & Keteyian, 2014). In a 2008 interview, former President of Washington State University Elson Floyd said, so much of the reputation of a university is determined based on basketball and football, the only notable exceptions are the Ivy League institutions. That’s an unfortunate circumstance, but it’s indeed a reality” (Withers, 2008). In Europe, it is an accepted fact that the vast majority of American universities are popular because of the sports teams that are part of the university athletic departments (Hubka, & Coombs, 2023). American institutions of higher education frequently assign substantial value to their athletic programs, recognizing that a successful sports team can confer several advantages to the school. Among these advantages is the euphoria associated with triumphs in sporting events. Such victories enhance the morale not only of the athletes themselves but also of the broader school community, often fostering a unified sense of school spirit and solidarity. Furthermore, there are potential economic gains to be realized; athletic success frequently serves as a catalyst for the institution’s branding as a premier competitor within the national landscape. This heightened profile can significantly increase the visibility of the school’s academic offerings and, in an ideal scenario, enlarge the pool of prospective students. Specifically, increased student engagement in sports associations, both in terms of higher participation rates and improved participation quality, leads to greater student development (Watson et al., 2019). Astin (1999) underscored that a student’s level of engagement in college directly correlates with the extent of their learning and personal growth. This heightened development is believed to result in increased satisfaction and a stronger sense of connection to the school (Kim, 2017).
Since university-sponsored collegiate athletics in Europe do not exist in this context, the purpose of this ethnographic research study is aimed to observe and learn about American collegiate athletics. As a European student studying abroad at an American university of higher education, I am uniquely situated to experience this new world of sports through first-hand observation of and fan participation in collegiate athletics. Over the course of several months, I attended eleven athletic events, including men’s American football, men’s basketball, women’s basketball, women’s soccer, women’s volleyball, and women’s gymnastics. Data is observed from my unique first-person point of view, with my perspective as a European at the forefront of this article’s analysis.
Literature review
American College Sports
The National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) is a significant governing body for college sports in the United States, established in 1906 to address concerns over the well-being of young athletes. It has evolved from a minimal role to a powerful entity influencing college athletics (Clotfelter, 2019; Fleisher, 1988). The NCAA’s mission is to integrate collegiate sports into the educational experience, advocating for student-athletes to balance their academic, social, and athletic lives, and to embody values such as integrity, excellence, and diversity (NCAA, 2021). College sports programs in the U.S. are often lauded for the unity and morale they bring to schools, and although successful programs like those at the University of Texas and the University of Michigan attract attention and potentially increase revenue, most do not turn a profit, with many reporting deficits (Clotfelter, 2019; Benedict & Keteyian, 2014).
The NCAA, while influential, faces criticism over issues like athlete compensation, the commercialization of college sports, and its enforcement policies. The term “student-athlete” was coined by the NCAA to distinguish these individuals from employees, a stance that has shielded the organization from various liability issues (Byers & Hammer, 2010; Posteher, 2021). These athletes are expected to maintain academic progress and amateur status, without professional involvement or financial rewards for their sports participation, despite the significant income they may generate for their institutions and the NCAA (Posteher, 2021).
Student-athletes face a unique set of challenges balancing the demands of academics and sports, often experiencing a conflict of roles and expectations from various stakeholders. The transition to college life is complicated by the additional pressures of team competition and the responsibilities associated with their sport, which can be quite challenging (Coombs, 2024; Posteher, 2021). Moreover, transitioning out of college sports can present identity challenges, particularly for those who have intertwined their self-concept with their athletic prowess. Despite the critiques aimed at the NCAA’s treatment of student-athletes, many argue that the benefits and experiences of collegiate sports can outweigh the sacrifices (Gerdy, 1997; Posteher, 2021).
Culture
The cultural landscape of sports, a multifarious and evolving domain, is anchored in a set of shared behaviors, beliefs, and values that coalesce to give meaning and expression within societies, as noted by Stensland (2021). This is embodied in the distinctive culture of sports, which is not static but is continually being constructed and reimagined through interactions and experiences of individuals within this sphere. The production, circulation, consumption, and resistance of cultural products in sports can be effectively examined through Hall’s (1997) Circuit of Culture framework. This model underscores the interconnectedness of representation, consumption, production, regulation, and identification, each playing a pivotal role in how sports culture is experienced and interpreted by society.
Sports culture has historically been shaped by local and regional practices; however, the rise of globalization and mass media has propelled it onto a global stage, transcending national boundaries and fostering a shared identity among diverse populations (Coombs et al., 2023). The collegiate sports culture in the United States exemplifies this transition, with college football and basketball evolving from simple extracurricular activities into complex commercial enterprises. These sports now emulate professional leagues in management and revenue generation, reflecting broader societal shifts and the influence of technological advancements (Clotfelter, 2019; Stensland, 2021).
The commercialization and professionalization of college sports highlight the dynamic nature of sports culture, as it adapts to the changing social, economic, and political landscapes. Collegiate athletics in America particularly illustrates the substantial influence of sport culture, where significant revenue and media attention pivot around the success of football and basketball programs. These changes underscore how collegiate sports culture has morphed into a major business, with its own set of norms, values, and commercial drivers (Clotfelter, 2019).
Method
Ethnography
Ethnography is a central qualitative methodology in social science, offering a deep dive into group life and culture through the observation and engagement within natural settings. This approach involves a layered process of capturing and interpreting the dynamics, languages, and behaviors of a group, and it stretches beyond mere observation to the complex task of culturally translating and representing life forms (Charmaz, 2006; Geertz, 1988). The method requires extensive fieldwork and a reflective stance on the part of the researcher to ethically translate observations into detailed written accounts, with consideration of the nuances and subtleties inherent in human interactions (Ballestero & Winthereik, 2021). Ethnography’s power lies in its detailed and nuanced portrayal of people’s lives and cultural practices, offering a rich perspective on social phenomena that might elude other research methods. Ethnographers are tasked with the continuous cycle of observation, documentation, and interpretation, striving to present a faithful depiction of a group’s culture and interactions. Despite its strengths in capturing the intricacies of social life, ethnographers face challenges such as time investment, potential biases, and the complexity of interpreting cultural contexts, making the process both rigorous and demanding (Ballestero & Winthereik, 2021; Pearson, 2015).
Sample
As a European student studying American college sports, I possess a unique vantage point that makes me particularly well-suited to conduct an ethnography about American college sports from a fan perspective. Coming from a different cultural and sporting background, I bring an outsider’s perspective that allows me to see and question aspects of the culture that may be taken for granted or overlooked by those who have grown up within it. This fresh perspective enables me to approach the subject with a sense of curiosity and objectivity that might be less accessible to someone deeply ingrained in the culture. Additionally, my experience with European sports culture provides me with a comparative framework to understand and analyze the unique characteristics of American college sports fandom. My position as both an outsider and a student enables me to navigate this cultural space with a blend of detachment and immersive engagement, making me uniquely equipped to explore and articulate the nuances of this particular sports culture.
As part of this study, I attended eleven sporting events on college campuses from August 2023-December 2023. These events included men’s American football, men’s basketball, women’s basketball, women’s soccer, women’s volleyball, and women’s gymnastics. During these events, I participated in fan-related activities and cultural traditions, of which I took field notes.
I also interviewed several European international students and international student-athletes about their involvement and understanding of American college sports. An international student-athlete (ISA) is a student who qualifies as both an international student living abroad in the United States and a student-athlete competing in a sport at a National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA)-member institution (Coombs, 2022). In total, I interviewed 20 different students, all of who were undergraduate or graduate students. The international students I interviewed had no previous experience with American college sports.
Findings
Initially, my research involved extensive reading of articles and books, coupled with conducting interviews, to deepen my understanding of American collegiate sports culture. The role of a student-athlete is multifaceted and extends beyond mere participation in sports. Eligibility to play on a team is governed by the Academic Progress Rate (APR), a system developed by the NCAA. Student-athletes can accumulate up to four points annually, divided between the fall and spring semesters. Points are awarded based on academic eligibility and retention at the institution. A team must maintain a minimum four-year score of 930 points to avoid penalties such as scholarship reduction, decreased practice time, and loss of financial aid (Stokowski, 2017). Thus, student-athletes shoulder significant responsibilities and adhere to stringent rules to maintain their team standing and scholarships.
The NCAA’s role extends to financing scholarships, housing, and travel expenses. Although these expenditures are substantial for institutions, they are relatively modest compared to the generated revenue. Significantly, this financial support enables many students to access education that would otherwise be unaffordable. The life of a student-athlete is akin to a full-time job, involving early mornings, training, classes, more practice, and study sessions, cumulatively occupying 8-10 hours daily.
The popularity of sports events among students intrigued me, leading to an exploration of the behaviors and motivations underlying this phenomenon. A standout aspect is the vibrant atmosphere created by participants. Each event begins with the American national anthem, a ritual observed with reverence by the audience. The entry of players to the accompaniment of motivational music, the enthusiastic fan response, and the distinct team introductions contribute to an electric atmosphere, eliciting strong emotional responses.
The involvement and interest of students, fans, and staff in college sports are remarkable. The roles of cheerleaders and dance teams are critical in energizing the atmosphere. Their performances, differing in focus between gymnastic feats and dance routines, are pivotal in reviving the spirit of the game. International students I interviewed concurred, highlighting the atmosphere, team spirit, and enjoyment. The college sports culture in America is taken seriously, with teams holding significant importance for their universities.
The mascot, a symbol of school spirit, is a ubiquitous presence at games, engaging in entertaining antics and interactions with fans. Similarly, the university’s music band enhances the atmosphere, playing a mix of popular and classic tunes, often supported by the cheerleaders and dance teams. The band’s presence, unusual in my experience at sports events, adds a unique auditory dimension to the games.
During game interruptions, the distribution of complimentary items like snacks, clothing, and vouchers by cheerleaders and staff generates palpable excitement among the audience. This practice, initially puzzling to me, became a source of fun and anticipation as I immersed myself in the games. Mini-games involving audience participation for prizes further contribute to the engaging and interactive environment.
A critical observation is the intense fandom that characterizes these events. Fans exhibit unwavering enthusiasm and support for their teams, regardless of the game’s outcome. Their actions, ranging from cheerleading to opponent taunting, significantly influence the game’s atmosphere. While some behaviors may border on unsportsmanlike conduct, they underscore the deep emotional investment of the fans. The number of spectators varies by sport, with football and men’s basketball typically drawing the largest crowds.
Behind the scenes, numerous university employees and an athletic department work diligently to ensure seamless event execution. Their roles encompass planning, scheduling, and game management. This team includes referees, scorekeepers, announcers, photographers, cameramen, and others responsible for live streaming and post-game reporting.
Analysis
Following a four-month immersive experience in North America, I have developed a profound understanding of the prominence of collegiate sports within this cultural context. Contrary to the perception that college life revolves solely around academic pursuits, I observed that sports play a crucial role in providing a necessary respite from the rigors of academic life. This phenomenon is not merely about leisure; it’s an integral part of the student experience, facilitating social interactions and collective enjoyment of sporting events. Such gatherings often feature enjoyable snacks and beverages, creating a convivial atmosphere around the games. In my analysis, I apply Stuart Hall’s (1997) Circuit of Culture framework to this ethnographic study, offering a detailed and layered understanding of the cultural significance of American collegiate athletics. This approach allows for a comprehensive exploration of the complex interplay between various cultural elements within the realm of collegiate sports.
Representation
In my observations, I noted how collegiate sports in America generate meaning through various symbols and rituals. The representation of team spirit and institutional pride is vividly expressed through logos, team colors, and mascots. These symbols are not just visual; they are imbued with history and meaning, resonating deeply with the community. The ritual of playing the national anthem before games, for instance, stood out as a powerful moment of national identity and unity. This act, along with the visual representations of the teams, constructs a narrative that is central to the identity of collegiate sports.
Consumption
My experience revealed the intense ways in which students, faculty, and the community consume collegiate sports. This consumption goes beyond merely watching games; it includes participating in game-day rituals, donning team merchandise, and engaging in spirited discussions about the teams. The excitement and energy at the games, particularly during key moments like player introductions or during halftime shows, underscored the deep emotional connection the audience has with these events. The enthusiasm for free merchandise and participation in interactive games also highlighted the active role of fans in this cultural phenomenon.
Production
The NCAA plays a pivotal role in the production of collegiate sports culture. My research indicated that the NCAA’s rules and regulations, particularly concerning athlete eligibility and academic performance, significantly influence the student-athlete experience. This production is not limited to sports alone; it extends to media portrayals, live streams, and post-game discussions, all of which contribute to the narrative of collegiate sports. The efforts of the athletic department in organizing and managing events also play a crucial part in this production process, shaping the way these sports are presented and experienced.
Regulation
Regulation within collegiate sports was evident in the policies and standards set by the NCAA, especially the Academic Progress Rate (APR). These regulations not only govern the eligibility of student-athletes but also shape their academic and athletic commitments. Additionally, there are social regulations, such as the norms and expectations for fan behavior during games. These unwritten rules contribute to the overall atmosphere and experience of collegiate sports, emphasizing sportsmanship and community engagement.
Identification
Throughout my study, I observed a strong sense of identification among students, staff, alumni, and fans with their collegiate sports teams. This identification goes beyond mere support for the sports teams; it is a critical aspect of individual and community identity. The shared experiences of cheering for a team, celebrating victories, and even enduring losses together foster a strong sense of belonging and pride. This was particularly evident in the way international students, like myself, engaged with these sports, finding a sense of connection and community in a new cultural setting.
Conclusion
In concluding my ethnographic study on American collegiate athletics, it’s imperative to reflect on the multifaceted impact these sports have on the cultural and educational landscape of the United States. Through the lens of Stuart Hall’s Circuit of Culture, this study has dissected the complex layers of representation, consumption, production, regulation, and identification inherent in the realm of collegiate sports. This analytical framework has not only illuminated the significance of these sports as mere games but also underscored their role as a vital component of American cultural identity, deeply woven into the social fabric and educational system.
The dichotomy of universities in America, as observed in this study, reveals two distinct foci: high-level education and sports-centric institutions. This distinction is exemplified by entities like the University of Texas, whose Darrel K. Royal-Texas Memorial Stadium, with its vast capacity for over 100,000 spectators, stands as a testament to the monumental scale of collegiate sports. Such large-scale sports facilities are not just physical structures; they are emblematic of the profound impact that sports have on the reputation and identity of American colleges and universities (Clotfelter, 2019). The prominence of commercial sports in the university setting is not merely a feature of the American educational system; it’s a cornerstone of the cultural and social experience for many students and faculty members.
This study has demonstrated that the influence of collegiate sports extends far beyond the athletes and teams themselves. It encompasses everyone connected to the institution, whether they are actively watching, discussing, or reading about the sporting events (Kim, 2017). The role of sports in American universities is thus twofold: it is a means of building and developing the university’s brand, and it is also a platform for community engagement and identity formation. The fervor with which students and alumni associate themselves with their university teams speaks volumes about the deep-seated sense of belonging and pride fostered by these sports.
The Circuit of Culture framework has been instrumental in dissecting the nuanced ways in which collegiate sports are represented, consumed, produced, regulated, and identified within the American context. Representation through symbols and rituals, consumption as a shared community experience, production overseen by governing bodies like the NCAA, regulation through policies and social norms, and identification as a form of communal bonding and pride – all these elements coalesce to create a rich tapestry of cultural significance.
In essence, collegiate sports in America are much more than competitions; they are cultural phenomena that encapsulate the values, aspirations, and identities of the institutions and communities they represent. As a European observer, this study has afforded me a unique vantage point to appreciate the integral role that sports play in shaping the educational and cultural landscape of American universities. This experience has not only enriched my understanding of American culture but has also provided a broader perspective on the interplay between sports, education, and community in a global context.
Being a collegiate sports fan in America involves more than just watching the game. It encompasses everything happening around it. Students wear university merchandise with pride and honor, participating in activities ranging from supporting their team to playing games and booing the opposing team. These enthusiasts make every event fun and entertaining. According to interviews with international students, collegiate sports events are special, enabling them to enjoy every minute, even though some were not generally sports fans and didn’t watch or care about sports previously. Those who attend these events often have a connection to the school, whether as students, alumni, or financial supporters and donors. This connection is one reason collegiate sports are so popular in North America. The emotional attachment is strong, yet fans don’t seem overly upset if their favorite team loses. Ultimately, collegiate sports events offer amazing experiences for all. They provide students a break from constant studying, while other fans simply enjoy the game and support their team. Even at a smaller college, the experience can be magical, clearly illustrating why watching and supporting collegiate sports is a cherished aspect of American culture.
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